Mahayana Buddhism and Theravada Buddhism
1.The origin and basic concepts of Buddhism
Buddhism originated in ancient India in the 6th century BCE, based on the teachings of Siddhartha Gautama (Shakyamuni). Shakyamuni was born into the Shakya clan in the ancient kingdom of Kapilavastu (now in present-day Nepal) as the son of King Śuddhodana. At the age of 29, he renounced his worldly life to pursue spiritual enlightenment. At 35, he attained enlightenment (bodhi) under the Bodhi tree and became a fully awakened one, the Buddha. He then spent 45 years teaching the Dharma (the Buddhist teachings) throughout the region of the Ganges River basin and passed into Parinirvana (the final Nirvana) at the age of 80 in Kushinagar.
In Buddhist terminology, "Yana" is a Sanskrit word meaning "vehicle." Its older transliterations include "Yan" or "Yanna." It carries the connotations of "vehicle," "carrying," or "path," metaphorically illustrating that the Dharma acts like a vehicle that transports sentient beings from the shore of samsara (the cycle of birth and death) to the shore of liberation. Based on differences in doctrinal emphasis and the scope of the ideal (the vow for liberation), Buddhism is traditionally divided into two major branches: Mahayana and Theravada.
• Mahayana: Corresponding Sanskrit term is 'Mahāyāna,' meaning 'great vehicle' or 'great path,' emphasizing the universal salvation of all beings.
• Hinayana: Corresponding to the Sanskrit term 'Hināyāna', meaning the lesser or inferior vehicle or path, emphasizing personal liberation.
It is worth noting that the term "Hinayana" carries a certain derogatory connotation and was later used by Mahayana Buddhists with a more open attitude to refer to early conservative Buddhist practitioners. Theravada Buddhist countries such as Sri Lanka, Thailand, and Myanmar refer to themselves as "Theravada Buddhism" and do not accept the term "Hinayana."
2.Historical Development and Differentiation Process
2.1 Early Buddhism and the Period of Sectarian BuddhismBuddhism
After the nirvana of Śākyamuni, Buddhism in India went through several important stages of development. Early Buddhism (6th century BCE to 4th century BCE) mainly spread the teachings of Śākyamuni and his close disciples. During this period, Buddhist monastic communities maintained relatively unified doctrine and practices. Around the 4th century BCE, the Buddhist Sangha experienced a 'fundamental schism,' forming the two major sects: the Theravāda and the Mahāsāṃghika. The trigger for this split was the debate over the 'Ten Laws Disallowed,' concerning whether monks could accept gold and silver, store food, and other ten disciplinary matters. The Theravāda advocated strict adherence to the original rules, while the Mahāsāṃghika took a more lenient approach. Subsequently, these two major sects further divided into eighteen or twenty schools, a period known as Sectarian Buddhism (4th century BCE to 1st century CE). The main sects include:
• Theravāda systems: including Sarvāstivāda, Dharmaguptaka, Sthaviravāda, Mahīśāsaka, and Dharmagupta, etc.
• Āgama system: Sārvāstivāda, Mahāsāṅghika, Jīvaka, Dharmaguptaka, Kāśyapīya, etc.
2.2 The Core Debates of Sectarian Buddhism
During the period of sectarian Buddhism, various schools engaged in intense debates around three core issues:
On the issue of 'dharma': This concerned the reality of various dharmas (phenomena). The Sarvāstivāda advocated the view that 'all dharmas exist in three times, and the nature of dharmas is constant,' believing that all dharmas of the past, present, and future truly exist; whereas the Sautrāntika held that 'only present dharmas truly exist, past and future do not have inherent existence,' asserting that only present dharmas are real.
On the issue of 'self': How to reconcile the early Buddhist doctrine of non-self with the theory of rebirth and liberation. The Pudgalavāda proposed the concept of 'pudgala' (ineffable self), claiming that there is an ineffable pudgala beyond the five aggregates that serves as the subject of rebirth; whereas the Sarvāstivāda strongly opposed this view, holding firmly to the stance that 'persons have no self.'
On the issue of 'Buddha': Different interpretations of the figure of Śākyamuni. The Mahāsāṃghika tended to deify the Buddha, regarding him as a superhuman being whose lifespan, wisdom, and supernatural powers were infinite; whereas the Theravāda was relatively conservative, viewing the Buddha as a great but historical person who experienced the natural processes of birth, aging, sickness, and death.
2.3 The Rise and Development of Mahayana BuddhismBuddhism
Around the 1st century CE, Mahayana Buddhism emerged in India. Mahayana Buddhist thought is considered an evolution and transcendence of early Buddhism and the sectarian schools of Buddhism, and its formation process can be divided into three stages:
Early Mahayana (circa 1st-5th centuries):
Represented by the Madhyamaka school of Nāgārjuna and Āryadeva. Nāgārjuna (circa 150–250) was the most important theorist of early Mahayana Buddhism. He wrote key treatises such as the Mūlamadhyamakakārikā and the Mahāprajñāpāramitāśāstra, expounding the theory of 'emptiness as dependent but seemingly existent,' asserting that all phenomena arise from causes and conditions and have no intrinsic nature, yet the illusory phenomena still appear. Āryadeva, a disciple of Nāgārjuna, authored works like the Śataśāstra and the Catuhśataka, further developing Madhyamaka thought.
Mid Mahayana (approximately 5th-6th century):
Represented by Asanga and Vasubandhu of the Yogācāra school. Asanga (approximately 4th-5th century) and his brother Vasubandhu (approximately 4th-5th century) founded the Yogācāra school, advocating the doctrine that 'all phenomena are consciousness-only,' believing that all phenomena arise dependent on the 'ālaya-vijñāna' (eighth consciousness). Vasubandhu authored important treatises such as the "Thirty Verses on Consciousness-Only" and the "Twenty Verses on Consciousness-Only," systematically expounding Yogācāra thought.
Later Mahayana (after the 7th century):
Buddhist doctrines declined while esoteric Buddhism emerged. During this period, Mahayana Buddhism merged with Hinduism and folk beliefs, forming esoteric Buddhism. Esoteric Buddhism emphasized the correspondence of body, speech, and mind, and through practices such as mantras, mudras, and visualizations, it eventually disappeared in India around the 13th century.
2.4 The Spread and Development of Buddhism in China
During the Eastern Han period, both the Mahayana and Hinayana scriptures were introduced to China by translators such as An Shigao (who translated Hinayana texts) and Zhi Luojian (who translated Mahayana texts). Within the context of Chinese culture, Mahayana Buddhism underwent creative development, giving rise to uniquely Chinese sects such as the Tiantai, Huayan, and Chan schools, while Hinayana Buddhism did not become mainstream. During the Wei, Jin, Northern, and Southern Dynasties, Buddhism in China developed rapidly, leading to the emergence of different philosophical schools known as the 'Six Schools and Seven Sects.' During the Sui and Tang dynasties, Chinese Buddhism reached its peak, forming the Eight Great Schools: Sanlun, Tiantai, Huayan, Faxiang, Vinaya, Pure Land, Chan, and Esoteric Buddhism. Among these, the Tiantai, Huayan, Chan, and Pure Land schools all exhibit distinctively Chinese characteristics.
3 Differences in Core Doctrines and Practices
3.1 Basic Beliefs and Spiritual Practice Goals
The Belief System of Theravada Buddhism:
Theravada Buddhism reveres Shakyamuni as the teacher and holds that through practices such as the 'Eightfold Path,' one can attain the fruit of an arahant (completely eliminating the defilements of the three realms and transcending the cycle of birth and death) or the fruit of a pratyekabuddha (understanding the twelve links of dependent origination and achieving enlightenment), but cannot become a Buddha. Theravada Buddhism believes that there can only be one Buddha in the present world, namely Shakyamuni Buddha, and other practitioners can at most attain the fruit of an arahant. The goal of practice in Theravada Buddhism is self-liberation, seeking individual nirvana. Nirvana in Theravada Buddhism is understood as a state of emptiness in which body and mind are extinguished, meaning that all defilements are completely removed, and one no longer suffers from the cycle of birth and death. The exemplary practitioners in Theravada Buddhism are the Śrāvakas (those who hear the Buddha's teachings and attain enlightenment) and the Pratyekabuddhas (those who realize the truth of the twelve links of dependent origination on their own).
The Belief System of Mahayana Buddhism:
Mahayana Buddhism believes that countless Buddhas exist simultaneously across the three times and ten directions, such as Amitabha Buddha, Medicine Buddha, and Maitreya Buddha. Practitioners can achieve Buddhahood, attaining unsurpassed, perfect, and complete enlightenment, through practicing the "Six Perfections" of the Bodhisattva path. The goal of Mahayana practice is both self-benefit and benefiting others, to universally save sentient beings and establish Buddha lands of purity. Mahayana Buddhism emphasizes the importance of the "Bodhicitta" (the mind aspiring to achieve Buddhahood for the benefit of all beings), considering it fundamental to Mahayana practice. As stated in the Lotus Sutra: 'If any being hears the Dharma from the World-Honored One, believes in it, accepts it, diligently practices it, and seeks all knowledge, Buddha's wisdom, natural wisdom, teacherless wisdom, the Tathagata's insight and power, fearless knowledge, and compassion to benefit and bring happiness to countless beings, liberating gods and humans from all suffering, this is called the Mahayana.' Mahayana Buddhism’s understanding of nirvana carries a positive significance, considering nirvana as inseparable from the world, that is, "life and death are nirvana." The model of practice in Mahayana Buddhism is the Bodhisattva, who upholds the principle of "seeking Buddhahood for oneself while saving all beings," vowing to save all sentient beings before achieving Buddhahood themselves.
3.2 Fundamentals of Philosophical Theory
The Philosophical Thought of Theravada Buddhism:
In terms of doctrinal studies, Theravada Buddhism tends to uphold 'dhammas exist, self does not,' meaning it denies the reality of the self but does not deny the reality of dhammas. Theravada Buddhism holds that although the 'self' (personal identity) is illusory, the five aggregates (form, sensation, perception, mental formations, and consciousness) that constitute the 'self' are real. The Sarvāstivāda school advocates 'the reality of the three times, the permanence of dharma essence,' asserting that all dhammas of the past, present, and future are real and that the essence of dhammas exists eternally. The Sautrāntika school, on the other hand, upholds 'present reality, past and future lack substance,' maintaining that only present dhammas are real, and past and future dhammas have no substance.
The Philosophical Thought of Mahayana Buddhism:
Mahayana Buddhism advocates the principle of the "emptiness of both persons and phenomena," while also denying the reality of both the self and phenomena. Mahayana Buddhism holds that not only is the "self" empty of inherent existence, but all phenomena are also empty of inherent existence; they arise from dependent origination and have no independent and unchanging essence. The theoretical analysis of the "no-self of phenomena" in Mahayana Buddhism is further divided into two major systems:
Madhyamaka School:
Founded by Nagarjuna and Aryadeva, it advocates the 'emptiness of inherent existence yet provisional existence' of all dharmas. The Madhyamaka School holds that all phenomena arise dependently and lack intrinsic nature, yet their provisional existence is still acknowledged. Nagarjuna, in the 'Mūlamadhyamakakārikā', proposed the 'Eight Negations of the Middle Way': 'neither coming into being nor ceasing, neither eternal nor impermanent, neither identical nor different, neither arising nor passing away,' using negation to reveal the true nature of all dharmas.
Yogācāra School:
Founded by Asaṅga and Vasubandhu, it advocates the idea that 'all phenomena are consciousness-only.' The Yogācāra School believes that all phenomena arise dependent on the 'ālaya-vijñāna' (the eighth consciousness), and that external objects are manifestations of the internal consciousness, with no reality independent of consciousness. The Yogācāra School divides consciousness into eight types: visual consciousness, auditory consciousness, olfactory consciousness, gustatory consciousness, tactile consciousness, mental consciousness, manas consciousness, and ālaya consciousness, among which ālaya consciousness is the fundamental consciousness that stores all seeds.
3.3 Methods of Practice
The practice methods of Theravada Buddhism:
Theravada Buddhism advocates the cultivation of the three trainings of morality, concentration, and wisdom, as well as the Eightfold Path. It emphasizes strict observance of precepts such as the Five Precepts and stresses meditation practice and the monastic tradition.
Precepts Study: Includes the Five Precepts (no killing, no stealing, no sexual misconduct, no false speech, no alcohol), the Ten Precepts, and the full monastic precepts, using observance of precepts to prevent wrongdoing and stop evil.
Meditation Study: Through practicing the four jhānas and eight meditations and other meditative methods, focus the mind on a single object to achieve inner peace and concentration.
Wisdom Study: Through the three wisdoms of hearing, contemplation, and practice, observe the true nature of all phenomena as they are, and eliminate ignorance and defilements.
The "Eightfold Path" of Theravada Buddhism includes: right view, right intention, right speech, right action, right livelihood, right effort, right mindfulness, and right concentration. These are the eight correct practices leading to Nirvana. The practice methods of Mahayana Buddhism: Mahayana Buddhism builds on this foundation by adding the "Six Perfections" (generosity, moral discipline, patience, effort, meditation, wisdom) and the "Four Means of Embracing" (giving, kind speech, beneficial actions, cooperation) as practices of the Bodhisattva path.
Sixth degree:
1. Generosity: giving of wealth, giving of the Dharma, giving without fear; using generosity to counteract greed and miserliness.
2. Morality: observing precepts concerning discipline, observing precepts concerning wholesome deeds, observing precepts for the benefit of living beings; using morality to counteract transgression.
3. Patience: patience with harm and resentment, patience in enduring suffering, patience through deep understanding of the Dharma; using patience to counteract anger.
4. Diligence: diligence in cutting off defilements, diligence in cultivating wholesome deeds, diligence in pursuing transformation of mind; using diligence to counteract laziness.
5. Concentration: resting in meditative absorption, generating meditative focus, applying meditative practice in action; using concentration to counteract distraction.
6. Wisdom: wisdom acquired through hearing, wisdom acquired through reflection, wisdom acquired through practice; using wisdom to counteract ignorance.
Quad camera
1. Giving: Using material gifts, teachings, and fearlessness to embrace sentient beings.
2. Kind Speech: Embracing sentient beings with gentle and friendly language.
3. Beneficial Actions: Embracing sentient beings through actions that benefit them.
4. Companionship: Sharing joys and sorrows with sentient beings, adapting to their capacities to help them.
Mahayana Buddhism emphasizes the importance of 'Bodhicitta' (the mind aspiring to attain Buddhahood for the benefit of all beings), considering it the foundation of Mahayana practice. Mahayana Buddhism also advocates 'upaya' (skillful means) as a method of practice, holding that any method that helps liberate beings can be employed.
4 Classical Texts and Major Sects
4.1 Main Classics Comparison
Theravada Buddhist Scriptures:
The main scriptures of Theravada Buddhism are primarily the Agamas, including:
"Dīrgha Āgama":
22 volumes, mainly records the Buddha's teachings, precepts, and karma.
"Madhyama Āgama":
60 volumes, mainly records the Buddha's instructions and dialogues with his disciples.
"Ekottarika Āgama":
51 volumes, arranged by number of dharmas from one to eleven for easier memorization.
"Saṃyukta Āgama":
50 volumes, the most comprehensive in content, covering various teachings.
In addition, Theravada Buddhism also has important scriptures such as the 'Buddhavamsa' (which records the Buddha's past lives) and the 'Dhammapada' (a collection of sayings).
Mahayana Buddhist Scriptures:
The scriptures of Mahayana Buddhism are even richer and more diverse, mainly including:
The Mahāprajñāpāramitā Sūtra:
600 volumes, a fundamental scripture of Mahayana Buddhism, expounding the concept of 'Prajñā emptiness'
The Lotus Sūtra:
7 volumes, emphasizes 'the convergence of the three vehicles into one,' believing that the three vehicles (Śrāvaka, Pratyekabuddha, Bodhisattva) ultimately all lead to Buddhahood
The Avataṃsaka Sūtra:
80 volumes, expounds the idea of 'interdependent origination of all phenomena,' emphasizing that there is no obstruction in phenomena and principle
The Mahāparinirvāṇa Sūtra:
40 volumes, expounds the concept of Buddha-nature, believing that all sentient beings possess Buddha-nature
The Diamond Sūtra:
1 volume, expounds the Prajñā concept of 'one's mind should arise without dwelling on anything'
The Vimalakīrti Nirdeśa Sūtra:
3 volumes, expounds the 'non-dual Dharma gate,' emphasizing the practice of lay practitioners
In addition, there are important scriptures such as the Amitabha Sutra, the Infinite Life Sutra, the Contemplation Sutra (the Three Pure Land Sutras), the Shurangama Sutra, and the Complete Enlightenment Sutra.
4.2 Major Canons
The main scriptures of Theravada Buddhism:
• "Mahāprajñāpāramitā Śāstra": 200 volumes, the fundamental treatise of the Sarvāstivāda school, systematically expounding Sarvāstivāda doctrines
• "Abhidharmakośa": 30 volumes, written by Vasubandhu, systematically expounding Sarvāstivāda doctrines but with some Sautrāntika elements
• "Satyasiddhi Śāstra": 16 volumes, written by Harivarman, expounding the idea of "emptiness of person and phenomena," with a Mahāyāna tendency
Major texts of Mahayana Buddhism:
"Madhyamakaśāstra" (Middle Treatise): 4 volumes, written by Nagarjuna, the fundamental treatise of the Madhyamaka school
"Mahāprajñāpāramitāśāstra" (Great Treatise on the Perfection of Wisdom): 100 volumes, written by Nagarjuna, a treatise explaining the "Daśabhūmikā Sūtra"
"Yogācārabhūmiśāstra" (Treatise on the Stages of Yoga Practice): 100 volumes, taught by Maitreya, annotated by Asaṅga, the fundamental treatise of the Yogācāra school
"Mahāyānasaṃgraha" (Compendium of the Mahāyāna): 3 volumes, written by Asaṅga, systematically expounds the Yogācāra thought
"Triṃśikā-vijñaptimātratā" (Thirty Verses on Consciousness-Only): 1 volume, written by Vasubandhu, an important treatise in the study of Yogācāra
"Mahāyāna-śraddhotpādaśāstra" (Treatise on the Awakening of Faith in the Mahāyāna): 1 volume, written by Aśvaghoṣa, expounds the "One Mind, Two Aspects" doctrine
4.3 Major Sects
Main Sects of Theravada Buddhism: In India, Theravada Buddhism mainly includes sects such as the Sarvāstivāda, Satyasiddhivāda, Vatsīputrīya, and others. In the regions where Theravada Buddhism is transmitted southward, it is primarily Thervada Buddhism, as practiced in countries like Sri Lanka, Thailand, Myanmar, Cambodia, and Laos.
Main Sects of Mahayana Buddhism: In China, Mahayana Buddhism developed into numerous sects:
• Sanlun School:
Inherits the Madhyamaka (Middle Way) school, with the fundamental scriptures being the "Madhyamaka Shastra," "Hundred Treatises," and "Twelve Gate Treatises."
• Yogacara School:
Inherits the Yogacara (Consciousness-Only) school, with the fundamental scriptures being the "Yogacarabhumi Shastra" and "Cheng Wei Shi Lun."
• Tiantai School:
Bases its teachings on the "Lotus Sutra," establishing theories such as "Three Thousand Realms in a Single Thought" and "Perfect Integration of the Three Truths."
• Huayan School:
Bases its teachings on the "Avatamsaka Sutra," expounding the idea of "Dependent Origination of the Dharmadhatu."
• Chan (Zen) School:
Characterized by "transmission outside scriptures, special teachings beyond words," emphasizing "clarifying the mind and seeing one’s nature" and "pointing directly to the human mind."
• Pure Land School:
Bases its teachings on the "Amitabha Sutra," "Infinite Life Sutra," and "Contemplation Sutra of Infinite Life," advocating "recitation of Buddha’s name for rebirth in the Pure Land."
• Vinaya School:
Bases its teachings on the "Dharmagupta Vinaya," focusing on the study of monastic discipline.
• Esoteric (Vajrayana) School:
Bases its teachings on the "Mahavairocana Sutra" and "Vajra Peak Sutra," emphasizing the correspondence of the three mysteries.
Among them, the Tiantai and Huayan schools can no longer be simply framed by the teachings of certain Indian Mahayana sects, but have formed unique systems by integrating elements of Chinese culture.
5 Regional Distribution and Cultural Influence
5.1 Geographical Distribution
In terms of geographic distribution, Buddhism is mainly divided into three linguistic families:
• Northern Buddhism:
Centered in China, it spread to countries such as Japan, Korea, Mongolia, and Vietnam. It is mainly Mahayana Buddhism and uses classical languages such as Chinese and Tibetan.
• Southern Buddhism:
Centered in Sri Lanka, it spread to countries such as Thailand, Myanmar, Cambodia, and Laos. It belongs to Theravada Buddhism (Hinayana) and uses Pali scriptures.
• Tibetan Buddhism:
Centered in Tibet, it spread to Mongolia, Bhutan, Nepal, and other regions. It is a combination of Mahayana Buddhism and Vajrayana (Tantric) Buddhism and uses Tibetan scriptures.
It should be noted that this distinction comes from the perspective of North Asian Buddhists, and South Asian Buddhists do not fully accept the term 'Hinayana,' referring to themselves instead as 'Theravada Buddhism.'
5.2 Main Classics Comparison
In the history of the development of Buddhism in China, Mahayana Buddhism deeply merged with traditional Chinese culture, forming Buddhist sects with distinct Chinese characteristics. For example, Chan (Zen) emphasizes 'clarifying the mind and seeing one's nature' and 'directly pointing to the human mind,' combining the meditative practices of Indian Buddhism with the natural non-action of Chinese Daoism and the cultivation of mind and character in Confucianism. The Pure Land sect advocates 'reciting the Buddha’s name to be reborn,' integrating Buddhist ideas of rebirth with Chinese folk religious customs. The Tiantai sect established theories such as 'three thousand realms in a single thought' and 'the perfect integration of the three truths,' combining the Indian Buddhist concept of dependent origination and emptiness with the Chinese philosophical idea of the relationship between essence and function. However, some scholars have pointed out that Chinese Buddhism exhibits the phenomenon of 'Mahayana thought with Hinayana practices,' meaning that while its theoretical level is advanced, its practical application is somewhat lacking. In their practice, Chinese Buddhists often focus more on personal liberation, which differs to some extent from the ideals of Indian Mahayana Buddhism, which emphasize universal salvation and the establishment of a Buddha land.
6 Impact on modern people
6.1 Psychological Adjustment and Stress Management
The Buddhist practice of 'mindfulness' has been widely applied in modern psychology. Psychological therapies such as Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction (MBSR) and Mindfulness-Based Cognitive Therapy (MBCT) originate from Buddhist meditation practices. These methods help modern people cultivate awareness of the present moment through techniques like observing the breath and body scanning, effectively alleviating psychological issues such as anxiety and depression.
6.2 Attitude Towards Life and Values
The Buddhist concept of 'dependent origination and emptiness' offers modern people a new perspective on viewing the world. In the face of the widespread materialism and the impact of consumer culture, Buddhism's advocacy of a lifestyle of 'contentment with little desire' and 'going with the flow freely' helps people reduce attachment to external material things and pursue inner peace and satisfaction.
6.3 Interpersonal Relationships and Social Harmony
The Mahayana Buddhist spirit of 'compassion' and the idea of 'altruism' provide a balance to the individualistic tendencies in modern society. By cultivating empathy and altruism, people can build more harmonious relationships and promote social harmony. The Buddhist 'Four Means of Attraction' (generosity, kind speech, beneficial actions, and treating others as companions) also offer concrete guidance for modern interpersonal interactions.
6.4 Environmental awareness
Buddhism's concepts of 'equality of all beings' and 'the non-duality of principle and phenomena' emphasize the unity of humans and nature, providing a philosophical foundation for modern environmental protection movements. These ideas encourage people to respect nature, protect the environment, and achieve harmonious coexistence between humans and nature.
6.5 Life Education and Views on Death
Buddhism's concepts of 'impermanence' and 'reincarnation' help modern people confront life issues such as birth, aging, sickness, and death. By understanding the impermanence of life, people can cherish the present more and face the ups and downs of life and the inevitability of death with a calmer mindset.
6.6 Cultural Heritage and Artistic Creation
Buddhist culture has had a profound impact on literature, art, architecture, and other fields. From the murals of Dunhuang to the Longmen Grottoes, from Zen poetry to Zen painting, Buddhist culture has added a wealth of artistic treasures to Chinese civilization. In modern artistic creation, Buddhist elements still hold significant inspirational value.
6.7 Cultural Exchange in the Context of Globalization
In the era of globalization, Buddhism, as an important bridge connecting Eastern and Western cultures, has promoted dialogue and understanding between different civilizations. The universal values of Buddhism, such as compassion, wisdom, and peace, provide spiritual resources for building a community with a shared future for humanity.
7 Summary and Comparison
The fundamental differences between Mahayana Buddhism and Theravada Buddhism can be summarized as follows:
1. Goal of practice: Theravada focuses on self-liberation, pursuing personal Nirvana; Mahayana emphasizes saving all beings, aiming for Buddhahood to help others.
2. Ideal personality: Theravada regards the Arahant as the highest attainment, believing there can only be one Buddha in the present world; Mahayana sees Buddhahood as the ultimate goal, believing there are countless Buddhas in the three times and ten directions.
3. Practice methods: Theravada emphasizes the three trainings of morality, concentration, and wisdom, and the Noble Eightfold Path, focusing on personal practice; Mahayana emphasizes the six perfections and myriad practices, as well as the four means of embracing, focusing on altruistic action.
4. View of the Buddha: Theravada treats the Buddha as a historical figure, experiencing birth, aging, sickness, and death; Mahayana has a tendency to venerate the Buddha, regarding him as a superhuman existence.
5. Philosophical theory: Theravada advocates 'persons are empty, dharmas exist,' denying only the reality of the self; Mahayana advocates 'both persons and dharmas are empty,' denying the reality of both the self and dharmas.
6. Canonical system: Theravada primarily uses the Agamas, with relatively few scriptures; Mahayana has a richer and more diverse canon, including Prajnaparamita, Lotus Sutra, Avatamsaka, Nirvana Sutra, etc.
7. Understanding of Nirvana: Theravada sees Nirvana as a state of emptiness where body and wisdom are extinguished; Mahayana sees Nirvana as having positive significance and not being separate from the world.
8. Exemplars of practice: Theravada regards disciples and solitary realizers as exemplars; Mahayana regards bodhisattvas as exemplars of practice.
As stated in the Vimalakirti Sutra: 'The compassion of the small vehicle aims to bring happiness to oneself by benefiting others; the compassion of the great vehicle aims to bring happiness to all beings.' This difference in emphasis between self-benefit and benefiting others is precisely the fundamental distinction between Theravada and Mahayana Buddhism. Understanding these differences not only helps grasp the development of Buddhist thought but also allows for a deeper appreciation of Buddhism's diverse expressions across different cultures. It should be emphasized that although Mahayana and Theravada Buddhism differ in doctrines, practices, and other aspects, both are important components of Buddhism and originate from the teachings of Shakyamuni. In the contemporary development of Buddhism, exchanges and dialogues between Southern and Northern Buddhist traditions are increasingly frequent, allowing them to learn from each other and jointly promote the modernization of Buddhism.
- Choosing a selection results in a full page refresh.